3 What is antisemitism?
Antisemitism is a term used to describe hostile attitudes and actions directed at Jews or targets that are perceived to be Jewish, based on specific notions about Jews. Antisemitism can take the form of everything from prejudice to deep-seated hatred, persecution and genocide. It can be just as strong in countries and areas with few or no Jews as in places with a well-established Jewish population. 5
Antisemitism can be found in various environments, including the far-right and the far-left, among Christians and Muslims, and has manifested itself in many different ways at different times, including as anti-Judaism, race-based antisemitism and modern secular Jew hatred. 6
A distinction is typically made between antisemitism in the form of individual attitudes and antisemitism that manifests itself in actions. It is important to make this distinction because a population’s attitudes toward Jews may improve at the same time as the number of attacks on Jewish targets increases, particularly when radical elements become more violent.
Classic antisemitic notions about Jews relate to ideas about their perceived otherness, political and financial influence, and lack of loyalty to the nation state. Conspiracy theorists claim that Jews represent a clandestine and dangerous force in the world that controls the media, banking system and politics.
Attempts to establish a uniform definition
Antisemitism is a complex phenomenon and it is therefore difficult to provide a simple definition that adequately describes the term. There are ongoing discussions, in both academic and political circles, about what ought to be included in the definition.
Norway is a member of the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA) along with 34 other countries. The founding document of the IHRA is the 2000 Declaration of the Stockholm International Forum on the Holocaust (the Stockholm Declaration), which sets out the international community’s duty to combat genocide, ethnic cleansing, racism, antisemitism and xenophobia. The IHRA has devised a non-legally binding working definition of ‘antisemitism’, which was adopted by consensus at the plenary session of the IHRA in 2016:
Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities.
The IHRA’s working definition is supplemented with examples that can be used as illustrations to raise awareness of whether expressed attitudes or actions should be regarded as antisemitic. The examples include Holocaust denial and holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of individuals. Several of the examples mention Israel. However, the IHRA emphasises that criticism of Israel, within the same parameters as criticism of other states, cannot be regarded as antisemitism. The IHRA’s list of examples should not be regarded as exhaustive and critiques thereof include failing to highlight conspiracy theories, which may be key elements of antisemitic notions.
It is not always obvious whether or not a remark or an action is antisemitic. Such an assessment is often context dependent. Familiarity with the phenomenon of antisemitism, antisemitic conspiracy theories and the history of antisemitism may be required to be able to identify it. 7
The Holocaust and antisemitism
Holocaust denial, i.e. claiming that the Holocaust did not take place, has been a key element of antisemitism since the Second World War. Today, Holocaust denial is openly expressed on YouTube and by certain influencers with many young followers, both in Norway and abroad. In Norway, almost the entire population has heard of the Holocaust, though there is less awareness of the Holocaust among Muslim immigrants. 8 There are no statistics of how many people in Norway directly deny that the Holocaust took place. Holocaust denial is primarily associated with groups on the fringes of political ideology, such as neo-Nazi circles. 9
Holocaust distortion, which involves calling into question the scale, causes and consequences of the Holocaust, is probably more widespread than Holocaust denial. 10 Holocaust distortion often involves an element of blaming the Jews for causing the genocide, or making claims and accusations that Jews are exploiting the history of the Holocaust for their own benefit. Perpetrator-victim inversion is a well-known trope from the antisemitic repertoire. 11
The Norwegian Holocaust Centre’s attitude surveys for 2022 and 2024 show that equating (drawing an analogy between) the Nazis’ treatment of Jews during the Second World War and Israel’s current treatment of the Palestinians is widely supported by the Norwegian population. In 2022, roughly one-third of the population supported this analogy, and by 2024, this figure had risen to over half (51 per cent). This is a high figure, including in an international context. There is some correlation between traditional antisemitic attitudes and support for this analogy. 12 Surveys in other European countries have previously shown that a majority of Jews perceive the claim that Israelis behave ‘like Nazis’ toward Palestinians as antisemitic. 13
Criticism of Israel and antisemitism
Freedom of expression, including the right of access to information, is a human right. Criticism of Israel and the Israeli government can be both fierce and one-sided without necessarily being antisemitic. However, there are examples of what are perceived as negative actions carried out by the State of Israel being described as the result of inherent, negative character traits in Jews. Thus, there are situations where criticism of Israel includes or is based on antisemitic notions.
Zionism
Zionism, as a cultural-political movement, emerged in Europe toward the end of the 19 th century in response to discrimination against Jews and rising antisemitism. The goal of the Zionist movement was to establish a national home for Jews and is based on the Jewish people’s desire and hope to return to their ancient homeland in the land of Israel (Eretz Yisrael), as described in Jewish religious texts. The name is derived from Zion, one of the Jewish names for the Temple Mount and the city of Jerusalem. 14
Today, Zionism is a politicised concept, attributed with various interpretations by different groups.
Jews may consider themselves Zionists because they support the existence of the State of Israel, without necessarily always agreeing with the Israeli Government. This also applies to Jews who are not citizens of Israel. Zionists may be religious or secular. There are also anti-Zionist Jews, who do not support the concept of a separate Jewish state or the State of Israel. Many non-Jewish individuals also consider themselves Zionists or anti-Zionists.
Antisemitism today
Antisemitism assumes new forms and fills new social and political functions as society changes. Both historically and in contemporary contexts, antisemitism is largely triggered by societal crises. Another factor is the conflict in the Middle East. There are examples of antisemitic conspiracy theories being manufactured and modified in response to crises such as economic downturns, migration, the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion and warfare in Ukraine. Jews have been accused of orchestrating mass migration, the spread of viruses and wars, allegedly in pursuit of power and control.
Following Hamas’ terrorist attack on Israel on 7 October 2023 and the subsequent war in the Middle East, new conspiratorial narratives about Jews have emerged, and there has been a rise in antisemitic attitudes and actions in Norway and other Western countries. In Europe, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict has also long been a partial motivating factor for jihadist violent extremism and terrorism aimed at Jewish targets.
New technology, internet culture and antisemitism
The nature and manifestations of antisemitism are changing and becoming more visible through new technology and internet culture. In various forums, antisemitism is promoted using memetic irony and humour. 15 ‘Memes’—which blur the lines between humour, entertainment and dehumanising content—are used to promote antisemitic propaganda and incite violence. A certain level of digital and technological competence is required to produce and understand memes that promote violence and conspiratorial narratives. This also means that some extremist content goes undetected by moderators or the authorities. The Norwegian Commission on Extremism’s report, which was presented in March 2024, highlights that far-right and Islamist groups are experimenting with the use of artificial intelligence (AI), including AI-generated image tools, to disseminate racist and antisemitic content. 16
A Danish study published in December 2023, which employed machine learning to map the Danish public’s digital presence on Facebook prior to 7 October 2023, 17 found that one in ten comments in discussions about Jews could be characterised as antisemitic. 18 Several surveys show that everyday digital life has changed for many Jews since 7 October 2023. A survey conducted in September 2024 by Analyse & Tall, in collaboration with Amnesty International Norway, indicates that Jews in Norway have become more vulnerable to cyberhate. 19 An international report from 2024 showed that neo-Nazis are using TikTok to recruit new members and to disseminate extremist content. 20 TikTok is a particularly popular social platform among teenagers and young adults.